Demand Control Schema

Dean and Pollard (2001) adapted the demand control concept from occupational research conducted by Robert Karasek (1979) and Törres Theorell (Karasek & Theorell, 1990). Karasek and Theorell recognized that occupational stress and illness, or work satisfaction and effectiveness, arise from an interactive dynamic between the challenges (demands) presented by work tasks in relation to the resources (controls or decision latitude) that workers bring to bear in response to job demands. This interactive view of work challenges and worker resources was a rejection of more static views of occupational stress as a function of specific job types. For example, while the occupations of firefighter, teacher, or physician are commonly viewed as high-stress, occupational research such as Karasek's documented that such professions were not associated with high rates of stress-related illness if workers had adequate resources (e.g., education, experience, equipment and materials, emotional support, and flexibility in decision-making) to perform well in light of job demands. In contrast, when workers were least able to respond to high-demand job situations, (i.e., when they had few controls), stress-related illnesses were at their highest levels.

Dean and Pollard (2001) used the framework of D-C theory to examine the nature of demands and controls in the interpreting profession specifically. They defined four categories of job demands that act upon interpreters: environmental demands, interpersonal demands, paralinguistic demands (formerly referred to as linguistic demands), and intrapersonal demands . Environmental demands are interpreting challenges or success requirements that pertain to the assignment setting (e.g., the need to understand consumers' occupational roles and specialized terminology specific to a given setting or tolerance of space limitations, odors, extreme temperatures, or adverse weather). Interpersonal demands are interpreting challenges or success requirements that pertain to the interaction of the consumers (e.g., the need to understand and mediate cultural differences, power differences and dynamics, differences in fund of information (Pollard, 1998), or the unique perceptions, preconceptions, and interactional goals of the consumers.) Paralinguistic demands are interpreting challenges or success requirements that pertain to overt aspects of the expressive communication of deaf and hearing consumers, i.e., the clarity of the –raw material” the interpreter sees and hears. Examples of paralinguistic demands are when a hearing individual has a heavy accent or is mumbling or when a deaf individual is signing lazily, lying down, or has an object in his or her hands. Finally, intrapersonal demands are interpreting challenges or success requirements that pertain to the internal physiological or psychological state of the interpreter (e.g., the need to tolerate hunger, pain, fatigue, or distracting thoughts or feelings).

In Dean and Pollard's D-C schema, controls are skills, decisions, or other resources that an interpreter may bring to bear in response to the demands presented by a given work assignment. Controls for interpreters may include education, experience, preparation for an assignment, behavioral actions or interventions, particular translation decisions, (e.g., specific word or sign choices or explanatory comments to consumers), encouraging –self-talk,” or the simple yet powerful act of consciously acknowledging the presence and significance of a given demand and the impact it is having on an interpreting assignment. As adapted from Karasek's D-C theory, the term controls refers to a broad array of worker characteristics, abilities, judgments, and actions that contribute to effective work. As we use the term, it is a noun, not a verb, and is preferably stated as control options. The term does not refer to –taking control,” –having control,” or "being in control" over demands that may arise. Control options may or may not be effective in meeting demands À in fact, the analysis of the effectiveness and consequences of how one chooses to respond (or not respond) to a given demand is the fundamental manner in which the D-C schema is applied during teaching, supervision, or self-analysis of interpreting work. Dean and Pollard define three temporal opportunities where controls may be employed: pre-assignment controls (e.g., education, language fluency, and assignment preparation), assignment controls (i.e., behavioral and translation decisions made during the assignment itself), and post-assignment controls (e.g., follow-up behaviors and continuing education). When engaging in a D-C work analysis, recognition of a given demand sparks consideration and critique of control options that might be employed during each of these three time periods.

See our publications page for a complete listing of our DC-S and other publications, many of which are available free of charge by request. For further information, contact Robyn Dean.

Textbook

Our long-awaited textbook, "The Demand Control Schema: Interpreting as a Practice Profession" by Robyn Dean and Robert Pollard has now been published and is available at our new Demand Control Schema (DC-S) website: www.DemandControlSchema.com. Robyn Dean and Robert Pollard have been developing DC-S and the practice-profession approach to community interpreting since 1995. This textbook is the culmination of nearly two decades of work, as it evolved over the course of 22 articles and book chapters and nine DC-S research and training grants. Designed primarily for classroom use in interpreter education programs (IEPs), interpreting supervisors, mentors, and practitioners also will find this book highly rewarding. IEPs could readily use this text in introductory courses, ethics courses, and in practicum seminars. Each of its ten chapters guides the reader through increasingly sophisticated descriptions and applications of all the key elements of DC-S, including its theoretical constructs, the purpose and method of dialogic work analysis, the schema’s teleological approach to interpreting ethics, and the importance of engaging in reflective practice, especially supervision of the type that is common in other practice professions. Each chapter concludes with a class activity, homework exercises, a check for understanding (quiz), discussion questions, and an advanced activity for practicing interpreters. The first page of each chapter presents a list of the chapter’s key concepts, preparing the reader for an efficient and effective learning experience. Numerous full-color photos, tables, and figures help make DC-S come alive for the reader and assist in learning and retaining the concepts presented. Formal endorsements from an international panel of renown interpreter educators and scholars describe this text as “aesthetically pleasing,” praising its “lively, accessible style,” its “logic and organization,” and referring to it as an “invaluable resource” with international appeal to “scholars and teachers.” Spoken language interpreters also are proponents of DC-S and will find the material in this text applicable to their education and practice, as well.

Robyn Dean continues to offer workshops on DC-S and supervision, including new on-line seminar specifically focused on the textbook. To keep up with these and other DC-S news and developments, “like” the Demand Control Schema Facebook page. Questions about the textbook and DC-S in general should be directed to Robyn Dean.

Observation-Supervision

"Observation-supervision" is a radical departure from the usual method of launching the practicum training of interpreting students by requiring them to observe other interpreters who are working in live situations. Instead, observation-supervision begins by having interpreting students observe in-vivo activities relevant to interpreting practice (e.g., a medical interview or a college class) but where, for the time being, deaf consumers and working interpreter are not present. This allows students to focus on the "normal" yet complex nature of such situations without the added distraction of attending to an interpreter's sign language choices or a deaf consumer's particular service circumstances. Students engaging in these observations complete an "observation sheet" that structures their observational activities and thought processes according to the D-C schema. Subsequently, students turn in their completed observation sheets to the instructor(s), who provide individual supervisory feedback and use the collected observation information to lead group supervision sessions where the class discusses issues of sign language, specific translational decisions, Deaf culture, various types of deaf consumers' potential needs, and other specific interpreting practice matters. In this way, the specifics of interpreting practice are superimposed "on top of" the broader context of these service environment norms that the students were able to observe in-vivo. The developers believe that this two-step process (where "hearing" environments and communication norms are first observed and learned, followed by deaf-specific issues) is superior to traditional in-vivo training methods.

Contact Robyn Dean for further information about observation-supervision training opportunities.

Evaluation Comments

"Absolutely the most effective workshop I have ever attended (in over 11 years). What a refreshing schema. I can't wait to put this into practice. I would attend this workshop again to catch even more nuances of demand-control. Robyn is an excellent presenter: knowledgeable, engaging, funny and passionate about the field of interpreting." 

"Robyn Dean is a dynamic speaker. Robyn Dean's rapport with the group - 2 thumbs up!"

"I was involved and felt a part of the discussion/lecture the whole time."

"I found this workshop very affirming and comforting. It's nice to know that there is a label and recognition for what is really going on in our field. I am proud to say that I make the interpreting choices that I do make--- thanks!"

"Excellent! Finally the missing piece! Gives field of interpreting and our day to day week that we face a much brighter future. Thank you! What a pleasure!"

"Excellent workshop! Really helped relieve a lot internal conflict I have been feeling. We need [Robyn Dean] to keep doing this work."

"Please get every ITP talking about this with their students. It's neat to see the interpreter profession move forward by exploring and teaching this theory! Long overdue and much needed."

"Robyn and Bob are able to convey complex theory and definitions and apply these to interpreters' everyday experiences and gut impressions. For veteran interpreters this finally explains our subjective experience of our work." 

"Very much needed for new and budding interpreters but also for folks who are experienced so as to think about situation in new light."

"It gives me a sense of empowerment and a better understanding of what is going on inside when things don't seem just right."

"Works for students, practitioners, and educators, supervisors, mentors. A model! Truly innovative."